Preparing Your Classroom For The ELL Student

With many civilizations represented in today ‘s schoolrooms and schools it is important for an pedagogue to be cognizant of the functions cultural background and English proficiency drama on course of study development and schoolroom direction. Educators in this class will analyze cultural factors that must be considered when taking a theoretical account of bringing of direction, interacting with parents, implementing effectual schoolroom direction techniques, and developing school-wide subject policies. Applying cognition gained from a assortment of beginnings, pedagogues will be able to show their apprehension by measuring and modifying course of study and stuffs to do them accessible to 2nd linguistic communication scholars.Learning Results:The pupil will be able to: Discourse the impact parental engagement has on an English Language Learners ‘ and/or Bilingual Learners ‘ attitude and behaviour Develop effectual ways in which to affect parents in a meaningful mode Evaluate cultural issues for their impact on pupil behaviour, teacher response and the classroom/school environments Evaluate cultural issues and depict how they impact schoolroom and school policies for subject Examine scheduling options and analyse their consequence on the schoolroom scene and the theoretical account of bringing of direction Apply pertinent larning theories in order to measure and modify schoolroom stuffs to do the course of study accessible to English Language Learners and Bilingual Learners Reflect on their single instruction manner, pupils ‘ civilization, pupils ‘ acquisition manners and territory policies as they pertain to programming, subject and schoolroom directionOnline Learning with Full Instructor FacilitationOur establishment maintains an on-line platform that automatically grades pupil pre- and post-assessments, proctors their engagement in the talk, and awards them recognition when they post in the treatment country. Teachers will supervise the advancement and quality of work the pupils provide, including the threaded treatments, and will supply feedback and measure the midterm and concluding undertakings.Weekly Online Lecture Assignments:Week 1Text Reading: Read about Parental Involvementhypertext transfer protocol: //epsl.asu.edu/epru/documents/EPSL-0801-250-EPRU.pdf Promoting ELL Parental Involvement: Challenges in Contested Times hypertext transfer protocol: //www.colorincolorado.org/families For FamiliesWatch Video ClipsClip 1: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.colorincolorado.org/webcasts/preschool – Interview with Rebecca Palacious, webcast and transcript Clip 2: Preschool with ELL portion II Assignment: After reading the article and the information on Colorin Colorado ‘s For Families subdivision, reexamine the recommendations on page 16 of Parental Involvement pdf. Focus on the 3rd bulleted point ( Support the professional readying of teachersaˆÂ ¦ ) and with that in head outline a plan to be used to link parents to a subject covered in your course of study or in the For Families subdivision. In the assignment province the course of study subject and why parental engagement would be good. How would you continue with placing the assorted functions that parents could hold in the bringing of the lessons and units related to the course of study subject? What impact would you anticipate this type of parental engagement to hold upon the parents, the pupils and the school as a whole? Discussion Board: Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m.Week 2Text Reading: Read about Classroom direction and cultural issueshypertext transfer protocol: //4faculty.org/includes/108r2.jsp Classroom Management hypertext transfer protocol: //wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Culturally_responsive_classroom_management Culturally antiphonal schoolroom direction hypertext transfer protocol: //www.intime.uni.edu/multiculture/curriculum/culture/Teaching.htm Culturally antiphonal instructionWatch Video ClipsClip 1: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=uKsz8yBdCvM Cultural Consciousness Assignment: What does it intend to be culturally antiphonal? What is the relationship between culturally antiphonal instruction and culturally antiphonal schoolroom direction? Prior to reading these texts what was your definition of culturally antiphonal instruction or schoolroom direction? How and why have you revised your stance based upon the readings and picture? Use examples to back up your place. Discussion Board: Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m.Week 3Text Reading: Read about programming optionshypertext transfer protocol: //blogs.edweek.org/edweek/learning-the-language/2008/06/research_on_pushin_versus_push.html Education Week, Research on Push In Versus Pull Out hypertext transfer protocol: //www.cal.org/resources/digest/rennie01.html Center for Applied Linguistics, ESL and Bilingual Program Models– Video Cartridge holdersClip 1: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=Ty3n07UaFUU & A ; feature=relatedNew Instructional Strategies Helps ELLs SucceedClip 2: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=THQRIs3_HMk & A ; feature=relatedApplied Differentiation Assignment: How are classroom direction and course of study execution influenced by the bringing of ESL/Bilingual direction being push in or draw out? Which signifier of bringing do you prefer and why? Discussion Board: Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m.Midterm Project DueWeek 4Text Reading: Read about Schema Theoryhypertext transfer protocol: //www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf Schema Theory and L2 Reading Comprehension: Deductions for Teaching hypertext transfer protocol: //www2.yk.psu.edu/~jlg18/506/SchemaTheory.pdf Introduction to Schema TheoryWatch Video ClipsClip 1: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=sShMA85pv8M Abbott and Costello ‘s -Who ‘s on First Assignment: Reread the subdivision Implications and Concluding Remarks. Keeping the baseball subject in head, read the baseball subject pages in See It, Be It, Write It, pages 79-81 and 168-169. Then, answer inquiries 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8, and answer those inquiries as they relate to the baseball subject. Discussion Board: Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m.Week 5Text Reading: Read about doing course of study accessible to ELL and Bilingual pupilshypertext transfer protocol: //www.njtesol-njbe.org/announcements/lit_position_paper.pdf Literacy and English Language Learners in New Jersey Schools hypertext transfer protocol: //www.doe.in.gov/lmmp/pdf/ELL_literacy_development.pdf U.S. Department of Education: ELL Literacy and Language DevelopmentWatch Video ClipsClip 1: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.teachertrainingvideos.com/ Assignment: Given an test, choice two inquiries and explicate how you could back up the pupil ‘s unwritten linguistic communication and background cognition in order to ease command of the construct assessed in those inquiries. Select three inquiries and explicate how you could modify them for usage with ELL and/or bilingual pupils. Use at least two resources from the teachertrainingvideos.com web site to back up your alterations. Discussion Board: Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m.Week 6Text Reading: Read about cultural positionshypertext transfer protocol: //ncrtl.msu.edu/http/sreports/sr293.pdf NCRTL Particular Report: Educating Teachers for Cultural Diversity. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.enquirer.com/discipline/disciplineday3main.html The Inquirer: School Discipline hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/physed/physed1-5/ep_perspective3.html Personal Social and Cultural Perspective in Physical EducationWatch Video ClipsClip 1: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=ji5_MqicxSo & A ; feature=related Randy Pausch Last Lecture: Achieving Your Childhood Dreams Assignment: After reading the three articles, choose 2 subjects that connect the readings. Explain the subject and the connexions. Reread the particular study in order to place two things that have changed since it was published in the 1990s and two state of affairss that still exist. Finally describe an case in your school, territory or your educational life that relates to one of the readings and the picture cartridge holder. What is the relationship? Discussion Board: Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m.Final Undertaking DueDiscussion Board:Students must subject one alone remark each hebdomad in respects to each of the assigned text reading and answer to a fellow pupil ‘s remarks at least twice each hebdomad. The remarks should associate to the stuff the text reading discusses. Each remark should be at least three sentences in length. The hebdomad ends Sunday at 9:00 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time If a pupil works in front during the six hebdomad class they should still post every hebdomad for the automatic marking package to number the posters. Students are reminded to look into the proclamation subdivision of the treatment board often for points of involvement from the module. Students are besides reminded to utilize the electronic mail, non the treatment board, to inquire inquiries or do remarks directed to their facilitator.Methods of direction: Percentage of Course CreditVideo Lectures 20 % Textbook/Articles Readings 10 % Midterm project 25 % Final undertaking 30 % Discussion Board interaction ( hebdomadal entries ) 10 % Engagement 5 %Rating criteria/system and rating activities:A class decision maker will be reexamining pupils ‘ replies and supplying feedback. Students will be evaluated on their creativeness and ability to integrate techniques from the talk into the treatment board, research documents, illustrations and lesson programs.University Grading CriteriaGrade Equivalent 97-100 % A+ 93-96 % Angstrom 90-92 % A- 87-89 % B+ 83-86 % B 80-82 % B- 77-79 % C+ 73-76 % C 70-72 % C- 69 % or below UAttendance/ParticipationIt is expected that pupils will go to all instructional Sessionss, required activities, and field assignments.Students who do non go to the first dark of category AND do non advise the teacher in progress will be dropped from the class and possibly charged a class bead fee.University Computer Lab/Library ServicesPlease refer to Section VI in the Student Handbook.Disability ServicessPlease refer to Section VII in the Student Handbook.Due day of the months of major assignments, undertakings, and scrutinies:Midterm Due Dates:Final Due Dates:Discussion Board Interaction: One alone remark and one response to a pupils remark by Sunday of each hebdomad.MIDTERM PROJECTDate Due:Look at your current instruction agenda and your lesson programs. How flexible have those guidelines and timeframes become due to alterations in the school agenda that are the consequence of the inclusion of ELLs or Bilingual pupils in the general instruction categories? How are schedules different in categories where the bringing of direction is pull out as compared to and/or contrasted with push in plans? How make your presently supply services to the 2nd linguistic communication scholars in your schoolroom? How is direction provided to such pupils throughout the school and the territory? Which theoretical account do you prefer for yourself, the instructor, and why? Which theoretical account do you prefer for the pupils and why?FINAL UndertakingDate Due:Based on the constructs presented in this class, analyse your schoolroom and your school ‘s subject program. Include a treatment on how you communicate your outlooks to the pupils and parents. How do you make out to the parents/guardians of the ELL and Bilingual pupils? What has been tried and successful? What can be improved based on what you have learned? How has the inclusion of ELL/Bilingual pupils in the general instruction puting impacted schoolroom direction and subject? Why may classroom direction and subject be handled otherwise in general instruction categories, in ELL categories or in Bilingual categories? Should at that place be differences in attacks? Why or why non? Submit a paper in APA manner that is between 6-8 pages, non numbering the screen page or mention page.

Censor Ship of a High School Newspaper

Censoreship of a High School Newspaper Students at Central High School have written an article called â€Å"Underage Drinking Rampant at Central High†. The article is in the High School newspaper called The Tiger’s Eye†. The article is about teenagers from the high school are underage drinking and it is out of control. The students want to distribute the news paper to the school. The School’s Administration is against the distribution of this article. The principal and superintendent believe the article should be censored from the school.But the students believe that distributing the article will inform younger teenagers about underage drinking, and will prevent them from drinking. Although the Administration believes that the newspaper should be surpressed, it should still be distributed. The first reason the article should be distributed is because it’s the law. The Constitution contains all the laws of the United States. The First Amendment of the U. S. Constitution guarantees the right of freedom of speech and freedom of the press. According to the First Amendment â€Å"Congress shall make no law†¦ abridging the freedom of speech or of the press†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (134).Freedom of speech means that the students can write and publish whatever they want. In addition, the editor of â€Å"The Tiger’s Eye† pointed out that the principal and super intendent â€Å"want a community in which everyone obeys the law. Everyone but them† (134). In other words, the administration should also obey the law. However, the law does apply in some circumstances. For example, the U. S. Supreme Court decided that High School Administrations have the right to censor or forbid topics that can be sensitive to students.The Administrators believe that underage drinking is a sensitive topic and that they should forbid the distribution of the article. But everyone knows about underage drinking, so it is not a sensitive topic. There fore, the right of freedom of the press should be respected. The second reason the article should be distributed is so the students learn about the what happens when you drink. The consequences that underage drinking can affect you are serious. Almost everyone at the high school kows about drinking. An anonymous person stated â€Å"First you drink a little. Then you dance a little. Then you find a quiet bedroom somewhere or go out ang nto your car. Everybody knows this. †(133). He or she clearly satets the a majority of the high school students knows what happens. Furthermore, Juanita C. says â€Å"Sure I drink. Not a lot. Everyone I know does. †(132). She has friends that drink and she stated that everyone she knows does. However, Trisha M. was one of the many people who said â€Å"I’m not ready to drink yet. Maybe when I get a lot older. †(133). She and the other teens that answered a similar way don’t really know what’s happening with the drinking. Nevertheless, informing people about the serious consequences can save lives.

Nairobi Securities Exchange

Investors use earning information to calculate the level of cost of equity capital. The cost of equity for a firm is computed by adding up the risk free rate and a premium for exposure to systematic risk as follows: Cost of equity = Risk-free rate + (risk measure) x (Market risk premium) 1.4 Nairobi Securities Exchange The Nairobi Securities Exchange offers a trading platform for both the local and international investors who are looking to gain exposure to Kenya and Africa's economic growth. NSE play a critical role in the growth of Kenya's economy by encouraging savings and investment by helping local and international companies access cost-effective capital. NSE is regulated by the Capital Markets Authority of Kenya. CMA approves public listing and fosters investor's confidence by ensuring rules, regulations and requirements for trade are complied with and market integrity is sustained in order to guarantee orderly, fair and efficient markets (CMA, 2016). CMA retains investor's confidence by ensuring rules, regulations and requirements for trade are complied with and market integrity is maintained. CMA also plays an important responsibility of mobilization and allocation of capital resources in the economy in order to provide incentives for long term investments (NSE, 2016) In Kenya, listed firms are required to produce quarterly, semi-financial statements and audited annual reports. Financial statements are prepared according to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and audited using International Standards on Auditing (ISA). The CMA guidelines encourage firms to disclose additional information on director and management remuneration (CMA, 2016). The performance of the NSE is an indication as to whether the investors have trust in the safety of their investment, trading goes down significantly with low investor's confidence.NSE is categorized into three different market segments namely the Main Investment Markets (MIMS), the Alternative Investment Markets (AIMS) and the Fixed Income Securities Market Segment (FISMS). According to CMA (2017) as at December 2017, listed companies at the NSE were 64, categorized into 11 sectors namely: Agricultural sectors, Automobiles and Accessories sector, Banking sector, Commercial and Services sector, Construction and Allied sector, Energy and Petroleum sector, Insurance sector, Investment sectors, Manufacturing and Allied sector, Telecommunication and Technology sector and Growth and Enterprise Market Segment sector Banking sector is the largest sector represented with 18% of the total firms listed at the NSE, second is commercial and Services sector and Manufacturing and Allied with 15% each, Agricultural sector which is one of the country major economic sector is represented by 11% of the total firms quoted. Telecommunication and Technology and Growth and Enterprises Market sectors were the lowest each with 2% of the total firms quoted. Through NSE, disclosures have had an impact on how investors trade, when the level of disclosure is high, investors confidence increases hence higher level of trading. The CMA guidelines encourage firms to disclose additional information on director and management remuneration (CMA, 2016). The performance of the NSE is an indication as to whether the investors have trust in the safety of their investment, trading goes down significantly with low investor's confidence.1.5 Statement of the Problem Inherent shortcomings of traditional reporting have prompted development of voluntary disclosure models. Transparency and disclosure creates and sustains confidence of investors, stakeholders and the winder society and provides opportunity for continuous improvement of business structure and processes. Corporate governance is currently an area broadly being researched on by many scholars, due to increased application of corporate governance practices all over the world after major corporate scandals due to lack or improper disclosure. This study targets one pillar of corporate governance on the cost of equity capital, which is voluntary disclosure. Disclosed information provides a signal with an aim of revealing the state of a company to the investors for consideration in investment activities. Information has important and vital role, information should be understandable, complete, accurate, timely and reliable (Fahdiansyah, 2013). Information is considered informative if it is relevant and can change stakeholder's belief and gives confidence to investors. Annual reports are important tools in communicating essential information about a company both financial and non financial information (Barako, 2007). The key drivers of corporate value in critical areas of the business are not reported under the traditional accounting model, as such theorist and researchers have begun to develop models for additional voluntary information disclosure. The concept of voluntary disclosure has been growing given the needs to keep with the clients expectations. Investors and clients have challenged companies on the need to provide more than what is required by the law and regulations. In Kenya, investors obtain essential information regarding trading activities of listed companies in NSE through their annual reports and other bulletins from CMA. Studies done in Kenya context include a study Mwangi and Mwiti (2015) investigated the impact of voluntary disclosure on stock performance, Mutiva (2015) examined the effect of voluntary disclosures on financial performance of firms quoted at NSE, Lopokoiyit (2012) investigated the effect of the corporate governance practices on share prices of companies listed at the NSE, these studies found a direct relationship between voluntary disclosure and company performance. Study by Asava (2013) investigated the effect of voluntary disclosure on stock returns of listed companies, her study reveals that there was no correlation between voluntary disclosure and stock returns. Barako (2007) in his study of determinants of voluntary disclosure in Kenyan listed company's' annual reports, observed that companies cannot link their board disclosure, foreign ownership and firm size significantly affect financial performance. Studies by Diamond and Verrecchia (1991), Botoan (1997), Hail (2002), Botosan and Plumlee (2002), Richard and welker (2001) and Lopes and Alencar (2008), shows a negative association between voluntary disclosure and the cost of equity capital using direct approach. However these studies were done in developed economies with few studies done in the context of developing nations, these studies tested the association between voluntary disclosure and several aspects such as profitability (Verracchia and Webber, 2006) stock liquidity. However most of these literatures are leaning more on factors that influence the extent of voluntary disclosure. Literatures from previous studies conducted locally have skewed more to factors that influence extent of voluntary disclosures with few on the effect of voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity capital on firms listed in NSE, the motivation of this research is developed by the fact that majority of past research have given conflicting arguments creating a dilemma that necessitates further research on the effect of voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity capital of firms in Kenya. 1.6 Objective of the study The general objective of this study is to examine the effects of voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity of capital. The following are the specific objectives.i). To examine the effect of forward-looking information voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity capital.ii). To determine the effect of financial information voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity capital.iii). To evaluate the effect of corporate social responsibility information voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity capital. iv). To establish the effect of Board information voluntary disclosure on the cost of equity capital. 1.7 Research question The study will be guided by the following research questions.i. What if the effect of forward-looking information disclosure on the cost of equity capital?ii. What is the effect of financial information disclosure on the cost of equity capital? iii. What is the effect of Corporate Social Responsibility information disclosure on the cost of equity capital? iv. What is the effect of Board Size information disclosure on the cost of equity capital? 1.8 Significance of the study Voluntary disclosures provide an extra way for investors to judge a company's performance. This study will therefore enable the investors to make better investment decisions and better capital allocations. It will also emphasize on increased transparency which reduces information asymmetry that may exist between the investors and the management team. This study will likewise extend the literature on voluntary disclosure to academicians. The study will also help listed and unlisted companies in Kenya in understanding the role of voluntary disclosure in the management of their firms with aim to reduce cost of its equity capital.CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 IntroductionsThis chapter introduces theories that explain the subject of voluntary disclosure and past empirical studies relating to the variables under the study.2.2 Theoretical ReviewReporting and disclosure are the most important tools that companies use to communicate with interest-related parties. Several theories have been documented to relate voluntary disclosure. They are Agency theory, Capital Need theory, Signaling theory and Stakeholder theory. Literature review presents theories about the subject of voluntary disclosure. 2.2.1 Agency TheoryAgency theory was developed by Jensen and Meckling in 1976 who defined agency relationship as a contract under which one or more persons delegate decision making authority to another person to perform some services on their behalf. Agency theory explores the relationship between a principal and an agent. In the context of a company, the manager (agent) acts on behalf of the shareholder (Principal). Company owners empower managers to make decisions on their behalf. Shareholders do not actively participate in the management of their investments instead they engage managers to act on their behalf. This makes managers have information advantage hence creating incentive to maximize their own value as opposed to that of the shareholders. Scott (2012) stated that the application of agency theory is used to explain the conflict of interest between managers and investors. The agency problem arises due to conflict of interest between the investors and management because their goals are not in agreement. Agency theory is concerned with solving two problems arising in the agency relationship: an agency problem arises when there is a conflict between the goals of the principal and that of the agent making it difficult for the principal to accurately evaluate and determine the value of decision made by the agent. Secondly problem of risk sharing arising from diverse attitude of the principal and the agent towards risk, the problem is each tends to select a different action when the risk happens (Depoers, 2000). One way in which agency problem can be minimized is by means of contract, it helps in bringing shareholders interest in line with managers' interests (Healy and Palepu, 2001).These contracts require management to disclose relevant information to investors and to creditors. Consequently principal can check if the management complied with the contract agreements and evaluate if their decisions are in alliance with their interest, monitoring managers by mean of contract comes with a cost at the expense of manager's compensation and in order to reduce any potential conflict, principals incur monitoring costs while agents incur bonding costs which guarantees the interest of the principal is prioritized. Agency costs are the total of monitoring costs, bonding costs and residual loss. According to agency theory, disclosing information voluntary is viewed as a better mechanism of mitigating the agency problem between the agents and principals (Hawashe, 2014). Managers who posses private information about a firm are able to use their information they posses to make credible and reliable communication to interested parties to optimize the value of the firm (Barako, 2007), these disclosure may include investment opportunity and financing policy of a company, however managers who pursue their own interest may fail to make proper information disclosure. Managers increases the level of voluntary information which is expected to reduce the agency cost (Barako et al., 2006) and also to convince the external users that managers are acting in an optimal way (Watson et al., 2002). OCED (2004) states that a strong disclosure policy is one of the expected monitoring forms that is useful as a basis of adequate information for investment decision making by investors. 2.2.2 Capital Need TheoryThe main aim any company is to attract external finance to increase their capital either through debt or equity, however companies are disclosing more information voluntary as a measures of minimizing costs of raising its capital. The capital need theory can help to explain the reasons behind the disclosure

Film Analysis (choose 1 form 7 questions) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Film Analysis (choose 1 form 7 questions) - Essay Example Yimou’s Hero depicts certain sociopolitical issues notable in the contemporary China. In the film, the protagonist named Nameless desires to kill the emperor of China. The main reason why Nameless wants to assassinate the emperor is because his family was murdered by the imperial soldiers. In this narrative, the film reflects particular issues or problems marked in today’s China: the state as more powerful than the people. When the kins of Nameless were murdered, it had certain political â€Å"objective† motive. In parallel to contemporary China, the state exercises particular actions in order to ensure the stability of the nation. In implementing its program, the Chinese Government has to use force, at certain point in time, in order to obtain the state’s plans and goals. The individual citizen is merely viewed as inferior in comparison to the state’s superior role. In contrast to democracy -- at least to the Western perspective -- China stresses t he importance of state power over people power. Moreover, the Hero film reflects, at certain degree, the national cinema in China. In Yimou’s movie, the narrative somehow depicts the minds or visions of particular Chinese directors and other people characterized in the Chinese movie-making: unity or nationalism.

The effects that standardized tests have on america's students Research Paper

The effects that standardized tests have on america's students - Research Paper Example Consequently, many people and various organizations have used the term for a long time to advocate for as well as champion for their rights, thereby making the word very powerful. For instance, various women’s suffrage, Civil Rights movements, among others have fought for equality for the human race no matter black or white, male or female, rich or poor just to mention a few. In America, the standards – based educational reform introduced the standardized tests in order to raise America’s standard of achievement in the education sector. This has been part of American education system from the 1800s and its use increased in 2002 after enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) that mandated yearly testing within the 50 states (McMeans 5). According to James Popham, former president of the American Educational Research Association, standardized tests refers to tests administered, scored, and later interpreted in a predetermined and standard manner (Higgins 12 ). The policy accorded high priority student performance with the aim of increasing student and school performance, thereby preparing American students to compete favorably for opportunities on the international stage. Proponents argue that standardized tests entail a fair as well as objective means of examining student achievement (Phelps 23). This makes schools and teachers more accountable to the taxpayers who are the parents. Therefore, standardized tests promote equality among students ensuring that all Americans pass a given tests in order to move to the next level. Despite the support and recognition given to standardized tests and the equality, it proves ambiguous since logically it is unattainable on earth. This is because when it is pursued beyond excellence or freedom, it can turn out to be very dangerous (Stahlman 242). The dangers of championing for equality beyond excellence are displayed in the story â€Å"Harrison Bergeron†, written by Kurt Vonnegut. However, opponents of standardized tests claim that the tests are neither objective nor fair and that their use encourages a narrow curriculum as well as drill like teaching to the test situation (Visone & EdD 95). Moreover, the tests compromise the ability of America to produce critical thinkers and innovators. Vonnegut in his story â€Å"Harrison Bergeron† clearly dwells on the theme of the dangers of total equity. He asserts that absolute equality is not a perfect and worth striving for by human beings (Dougherty 176). This is because it is a misguided goal that proves dangerous both in the execution and in its outcome. Therefore, the search for equality above excellence or freedom is very dangerous. This is because application of equality in some situations and in areas that it cannot and should not exist might restrict excellence as well as liberty (Harris, Bruce & Harris 56). This is because in life human beings are not equal in some things and will never be. According to Abraha m Lincoln’s speech during the Declaration of Independence, people are not equal in size, colour, moral development, intellect, as well as social capacity (Crossley 2). Therefore, the fact remains that human beings are different in various things, in both physical and mental realms, and thus it is impossible to achieve total equality. Thus, just like in the Vonnegut’s story, standardized tests promote absolute equality. This is dangerous due to several

Explain the ways in which a subgenre of jazz (e.g. swing, bebop) was a Essay

Explain the ways in which a subgenre of jazz (e.g. swing, bebop) was a rejection or a continuation of the styles that preceded i - Essay Example This paper would attempt to answer this question by taking into consideration the historical development of hard bop and funk in relation to the overall history of jazz, as well as into the specific cultural context where these styles developed. In this case, this paper would first look into the different historical, social and cultural contexts in the development of hard bop, which was an earlier development than funk (Wynn 1994). In this part of the paper, the researcher would try to look into the different musical styles that hard bop adopted, and would describe the ways on how this style rejected or continued earlier styles. The next part of the paper would then tackle the historical, social and cultural contexts in relation with the development of funk, which appeared in the early 1970’s (allmusic.com n.d.). In this part of the paper, the researcher would try to look into the different musical influences and inspirations that led top the development of this jazz style, an d would likewise describe the ways on how this style rejected or continued earlier styles. The next part of the paper would then tackle the historical, social and cultural contexts in relation with the development of funk, which appeared in the early 1970’s (allmusic.com n.d.). In this part of the paper, the researcher would try to look into the different musical influences and inspirations that led top the development of this jazz style, and would likewise describe the ways on how this style rejected or continued earlier styles. The last part of the paper would then formulate a conclusion on whether both hard bop and funk represented a major break in style, or was it merely a continuation, given the cultural and historical development of jazz music in that specific period. The Development of Hard Bop One of the main styles of jazz played in the early half of the 20th century was hard bop. According to Gridley (Wynn 1994, p. 11-12), the term â€Å"hard bop† was actuall y first used in the early 1950’s. Before the development of hard bop, in the early 1940’s, the most popular style of jazz that was played was bebop, also known as bop music (Berendt 1981). Simply put, bebop was known as the type of jazz that actually strived to make it more of an artful music, especially by fusing into jazz new types of chromatics and dissonance (Berendt 1981). In this case, some jazz historians actually claim that hard bop was partially inspired by bebop, or is actually an extension of it, due to the fact that this style also incorporated the dissonance styles of bop music, and that hard bop also tried to make jazz more as an artful music, rather than a popular jazz music as it was in the earlier part of the twentieth century (Wynn, 1994). However, despite these influences, hard bop also had its own characterizations. In the development of its unique style, hard bop incorporated several musical influences, which included rhythm and blues, and even gos pel music (Wynn, 1994). In this case, some of the elements of rhythm and blues and gospel music were actually incorporated into jazz music, which was natural at that time (Rosenthal 1992). According to Rosenthal (1992), in the early 1940’s, rhythm and blues, along with bop, were actually two of the most dominant forces in black music. In this case, Rosenthal further argues that jazz musicians who were to develop the unique style of hard bop also grew up in a time when rhythm and blues, as well as bop music, were popular; in this case, it is natural for them to integrate these styles into the development of hard bop. In the years preceding the development of hard bop, one of the most popular musicians at that time was Tadd Dameron, and he was actually known to have worked with both bop music and rhythm and blues; this historical and

The Diamond Necklace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Diamond Necklace - Essay Example Even though she lives in their humble home she desperately longs for a rich life. One day her husband, Loisel, gets an invitation to a ball. Mathilde pleads and manages to get her husband to part with the money he had been saving for himself and buys a dress for her to wear to the ball. She is still not satisfied and complains that she does not have any ornaments to wear that would go well with the dress. Acting upon her husband’s suggestion she goes to her friend Madame Forestier and borrows a beautiful necklace from her. Mathilde feels happy throughout the evening and for once in her life feels at par with the ladies that she had been envious of ever since she could remember. However she finds out after reaching home after the ball that the necklace was missing. Both husband and wife search high and low but can’t find the ornament. They decide to replace it with another necklace. They borrow money from many sources and even use up the money that Loisel’s father had left him and buy the necklace for a huge sum, and return it to Madame Forestier without letting her know what actually happened. A ten year period of extreme hardship follows as they repay the debt that they incurred to buy the necklace. By the end of that difficult period Mathilde comes across Madame Forestier and confesses all that happened. Madame Forestier then reveals that the original necklace Mathilde had borrowed was a clever imitation and worth only a few hundred francs. One can’t help but feel sorry for Mathilde. She had been yearning all her life to be a part of the elite. The one evening that happened proved to be too expensive and deprived her of her peace of mind for ten long years. Even though the story has the moral that one has to be happy with what one has and the greed leads to eventual destruction. The plight that Mathilde went through could have been avoided if she had dealt with the situation in a different manner. As soon as she found out that the necklace was

Criminal and Civil Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Criminal and Civil Justice - Essay Example al rule regarding admissibility is set out in the case of R v Leathem1, which provides that the manner of obtaining evidence does not exclude admissibility. The test of admissibility is whether the evidence is relevant. However, whilst there is there is no rule of exclusion per se, it is open to the court to exercise its discretion under Section 78 of PACE. The main ground for challenging the admissibility of Jack’s statement under Section 78 will be â€Å"the circumstances in which the evidence was obtained†. This is further supported by the decision in Matto v Wolverhampton Crown Court.2 Furthermore, breaches of the PACE accompanying Codes of Practice can also require the section 78 discretion to be used if such breaches are significant and substantial3. Under section 58 of PACE and paragraph 11.2 of Code C, detainees must be told of their right to legal advice. Jack was denied the right to legal advice. Whilst assault is a serious arrestable offence and section 116 of PACE permits delay of access to legal advice up to 36 hours, in order to rely on section 116, the police have to prove that they reasonably feared one of the contingencies referred to in section 58 (8) of PACE arising. However, it does not appear that these were applicable to justify the delay of legal advice to Jack. Whilst a wrongful delay in obtaining legal advice will not render automatic exclusion of evidence under section 78, in the case of R v Alladice4, the Court of Appeal stressed that relevant factors under section 78 were whether the police acted in bad faith and whether the presence of a solicitor would have made a difference to the defendant. The restriction and denial of legal advice is in breach of Code C section 6.5 and reflects adversely on the fairness of the proceedings. On this basis there are strong grounds to exclude Jack’s statement. With regard to Jack’s statement regarding Edward’s culpability for the offence, under the common law, as established in R v

Summary Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Summary - Coursework Example This being said, Day and Schoemaker (2005) develop a strategic eye exam that will help managers to examine the most problematic strategic areas. First, the authors recommend defining the scope of the company’s peripheral vision. Neither too much nor too little peripheral vision is good for the company: those with too much peripheral vision can end up being too neurotic to deal with change. Second, Day and Schoemaker (2005) proceed to the questions every manager should ask while analyzing companies’ peripheral vision: these questions relate to companies’ past and present, as well as future prospects and ideas. Finally, the authors suggest that the peripheral vision of any company can be strengthened. The article can readily serve the source of valuable advice in the development of useful peripheral vision and thinking within organizations. Day, GS & Schoemaker, PH 2005, ‘Scanning the periphery’, Harvard Business Review, November, pp.135-148. Are You S ure You Have a Strategy? Strategy is a buzzword in contemporary organization studies, but few organizations have a clear understanding of what strategy really means: in this article, Hambrick and Fredrickson (2005) develop a framework for strategy design that includes five basic elements. According to Hambrick and Fredrickson (2005), researchers have developed abundance of various strategic analysis frameworks, but all these frameworks ignore the fundamental question of what strategy is and how it works. As a result, it is not clear how these strategic frameworks should be applied and how they can benefit organizations. In this situation, strategic managers and business owners create confusion and reduce their professional credibility (Hambrick & Fredrickson 2005). This is why the authors of this article propose their vision of strategy and its elements. Based on the article, the main elements of strategy include Arenas, Vehicles, Differentiators, Staging, and Economic Logic. For ea ch element, Hambrick and Fredrickson (2005) provide a question every company should ask in the process of formulating its strategy. For example, in terms of the Arenas element, executives should first decide where exactly, in what arenas, their business will operate (Hambrick & Fredrickson 2005). The substance of any strategy is made of arenas, vehicles, and differentiators, which also require that executives define the main stages of strategy implementation and develop a clear idea of how exactly they want to generate profits (Hambrick & Fredrickson 2005). To support their claims, the authors provide a number of case studies. These case studies illustrate the strengths of the proposed strategy framework. Finally, Hambrick and Fredrickson (2005) conclude that strategy is not about planning but about informed and well-integrated choices and the proposed framework can well serve the basis for the development of the major strategic initiatives. Hambrick, DC & Fredrickson, JW 2005, â₠¬ËœAre you sure you have a strategy?’, Academy of Management Executive, vol.19, no.4, pp.51-62. The Irrational Side of Change Management In this article, the authors identify and discuss nine insights into the way human nature becomes a barrier to implementing the four conditions of behavioral change and fostering positive organizational shifts. Also, the authors show how different companies have succeeded in overcoming these obstacles,

Buyer Behaviour Academic Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Buyer Behaviour Academic Paper - Essay Example Manual efforts have been considerably reduced in mathematical calculations, analysis and interpretations of data because of computer and internet. Most of the companies have redefined their organizational strategies in order to accommodate and make use of the internet technologies. Organizational principles need to be restructured in order to exploit the possibilities of computers and internet. For example, the core function like marketing needs to be revised in order to target the online consumers. Consumer trends also have undergone rapid changes because of internet. Internet and its influence on consumers irrespective of children or elder people forced organizations to formulate custom made strategies for the internet users. The main advantage of internet is that the marketers can prepare custom made marketing strategies for internet users by sending customised e-mails. This paper analyses the importance of online technologies and online environment for influencing buyer behaviours based on some preliminary and secondary data collected through interviews and other sources of references. Apart from real life on real world, most of the people have a secondary life on a virtual world mainly around the computers and internet. Majority of the human population may not be satisfied with their real world experiences. The life which they dreamed of may not be possible for them because of so many constraints in the family and the society. Such people can fulfil their dream up to certain extent using the online environment. Online environment and the anonymity offered by it provide the people to release their hidden stresses and desires to other communities. A real friend in real life is a dream for most of the people because of the changing moral and ethical concepts of life. Even husband and wife may not share all of their suppressed desires between them because of the lack of trust between them. Recently I have watched an Indian movie

When and Why to Think about Retirement and Estate Planning Essay

When and Why to Think about Retirement and Estate Planning - Essay Example As soon as an individual gets work and immediately they are through paying off their student’s loans, then retirement kitty should be the next important investment they start to make to avoid re-entering the workforce once they have retired because they have no savings to see them through their old-age period. Action should also be taken immediately because of the uncertainty of the future and what may happen to an individual’s job and hence the retirement saving’s may come in handy in case of early and forced retirement or in case of a disability. According to Blue and White in their book, retirement is in phases and the most successful of retirements comes with early thoughts and action towards accumulation phase (Blue and White, 2008). I have already started making plans for my retirement to avoid stresses in my retirement years of having to burden my family to take care of me or having to start depending on the little social security funds or even start looking for work when am already retired. Everyone should think of retirement because it is never too early to start having a retirement kitty or to start planning one’s estate (Gitman, et al.

Racial Diversity in Society Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Racial Diversity in Society Worksheet Essay Complete the following using the MySocLab Social Explorer Map: Income Inequality by Race (located on the student website) as a reference: †¢Select 1 racial group from the list below: African American Asian American Arab American Hispanic American/Latino White/Caucasian †¢Write a 150- to 300-word summary of the economic, social, and political standings of that group. Use additional resources if necessary, from the University Library or your textbooks. Provide citations for all the sources you use. Hispanic Americans or Latinos in America descend from many different countries such as Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and The Dominican Republic. They come to the United States as immigrants for a variety of different reasons, but the most common is that they come here in search of the American Dream. From an economic point of view Hispanics remain at the bottom of the job ladders due to the fact that many of them are not educationally equipped and are not fluent in English which are both necessities when it comes to the jobs in demand. Their lack of formal education is what is keeping them down in our nation’s technology run job market. Studies show that less and less Hispanic Americans are finishing high school, and without the skills that education will teach them they will continue to flounder in todays economy. When it comes to social statistics it is overwhelmingly clear that faith and family have and continue to be the cornerstone of the Hispanic American Family values and a huge part of their religious based culture. Politically, due to the fact that the majority of  Hispanic Americans are lower or middle cla ss, they tend to agree with the democratic views when it comes to politics. Part II Answer the following in 50 to 150 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. †¢What is racism? In what ways does racism affect diversity? Racism can be defined as the belief that a specific racial group is superior or inferior to another and that there is nothing that any individual who belongs to that racial group does (economically, socially, politically) can change it. Racism affects diversity through outlets such as discrimination and prejudice that we hold against one another due to the fact that our skin is not all the same color. Today, we hear words like that (prejudice and discrimination) and we are quick to object to the accusation that we can still, after all we as a nation have overcome when it comes to touchy subjects like this, be guilty of such negative ways of thinking. However, it is clear that some things clearly have not changed when we look at statistics that show that in American society whites are still hired for high paying jobs in greater numbers than minorities with the same credentials or that minorities still seem to make up the majority of inmate populations in todays prisons. †¢How do racial groups interact in contemporary America? Are interactions positive, negative, or neutral? Support your response using proper citations. Today, it is not uncommon for racial groups to interact with each other in a mostly positive way due to the fact that in most communities we are not separated based on our racial background when it comes to things such as the schools we attend and jobs that we are allowed to hold like we have been in the past. This is thanks to desegregation and affirmative action laws that have been put into action over the past several years. However, even with these laws we are not a perfect nation and there is still cases where social  inequities can allow discrimination and prejudices to rear their ugly heads in today’s society. Social inequities can affect a particular races basic human rights such as the right to live in a certain area, be hired for a certain job, be able to travel freely, acceptance into schools or colleges, and even the right to vote. †¢Are there existing social inequities based on race? Why or why not? Social inequities is one of those touchy subjects that some people say still exist and some people say does not. Like many subjects similar to this one (racism in general, prejudice, and discrimination) people’s views on it can differ tremendously. Some speak from experience and some speak on it based on facts that they are taught. I’ll touch on an example that I previously mentioned to support the argument that yes, social inequities are existent in today’s society. When you look at prisons today, it is clear that minorities make up a much larger chunk of the inmate population than whites. People who argue that social inequities are the cause of this say that this is a result if whites having always been a more protected race in the US and because of this so called protection, they are favored in the justice system and are given more access to better attorneys. People who support the idea that social inequities don’t exist can of course use the argument t hat the reason that minorities make up most of the inmate population is simply because they are the ones who are responsible for committing the crimes that get them in trouble in the first place. †¢What do you believe to be the causes of racial prejudice and discrimination in today’s society? Looking back at our Nation’s history, it’s clear that racism has and continues to be a problem here. However, it’s also clear that he have taken huge steps, which include legal actions, in order to eliminate it. Unfortunately it is not something that can be completely abolished overnight, and we have to have patience in order to keep the movement pressing forward. The awareness that courses such as this one provides are also great tools when it comes to educating more people on the issue, the  causes, and what can be done to keep it from spreading. I believe that the main cause of racial prejudices is the fact that although as a nation (united) we are against it there are still individual people and families amongst us who refuse to stop it in their personal lives and who continue to teach it to their children generation after generation. Racism is something that is taught, as there is now way for it to be passed genetically or inherently. References Braubach, M. (2010, January 4). Social inequities in environmental risks associated with housing and residential location—a review of evidence. Oxford Journals. Retrieved from http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/1/36.abstract?sid=4aa802c1-b338-41e1-b724-eef7ecee7791 Huffman, A. (2012, November 15). How Hispanics Impact Political, Social and Economic Climate. Charisma News. Retrieved from http://www.charismanews.com/us/34581-how-hispanics-impact-political-social-and-economic-climate Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and Ethnic Groups (13th ed.). : Merrill Prentice Hall.

Research Proposal On Resource Management Environmental Sciences Essay

Research Proposal On Resource Management Environmental Sciences Essay Introduction: This is an individual components assignment with carried an individual presentation. This assignment is consists of a research proposals. A research proposal is written specification of an intended research. In order to, from the particular topic do the literature review, problem statement, methodology, project objective and results expectation. When do research on literature review as a researcher needed to find information through the scholarly journal, scholarly articles, books and scholarly conference. In the literature review, task is to make referencing as research proposals what others researcher has been done. Find the relevant particular issue, area of research, theory, description, summary and critical issue due to the particular topic. In research proposals, the next method is problem statement. At here, after accomplished the literature review part, to identifying the problem on others researcher has been done. Furthermore, also discuss the problem of project background, project background is provide the evidence ad facts to support the researcher case problem, describes clearly on the new idea problem. After completed the problem statement, the next step is methodology. Methodology is from researcher research design to identifying the justification or limitations on the product. At here, requirement explains the depth of investigation, content, sample size, geographical and theoretical coverage. The next method for research proposal is Project objective, project objective is listed out the objective of the research aim arising directly from the purpose of the study. In the project objective, also require to do the research questions and significance of the project. For explain objective for the research. The last step is results expectation. Before completed the research proposal, as a researcher require to do the results expectation on the idea. To do the analyze data, listed the method to used, require market or other relevant issues for assuming the results. In conclusion, a research proposal is combined with different research methods for accomplished the proposal. , all of this method is important information to support researcher on the research topic for avoid the plagiarisms. Due to the problem of global climate rapidly increasing, environmental damage and environmental pollution become more serious. And the natural resources minimizing, the important of renewable energy more be valued. More researcher are try to research the renewable energy for solving the natural resources minimizing problem. Researcher are founded various types of renewable energy for replacement the natural resources, the most common renewable energy is solar energy system. Solar energy system is collecting the sunlight into the solar panel and then to generate the electric power to supply the electricity. Next of renewable energy is the wave energy system, its assist with the wave energy to rotary the turbine generator and generate the electric power, normally are using by the country along with ocean. The next renewable energy is same concept with the wave energy system, there are also using the turbine rotary to generate the energy for supply the electric power, which is the wind energy power system. Turbine are designing as the fan blade, its normally build on open air environment. When the wind are blowing the turbine will be rotating and in the same time the turbine connect with a generator, the generator are generate the energy, therefore this is called as wind power energy system. Basically wind power energy system are building at high frequency wind area, because able to generate more energy, but due to the researcher do some relevant research it also suitable for build at normal frequency wind blow areas. Reason is renewable energy is an important resources for reducing the natural resource minimizing rapidly. In the end, introduce my research topic is the micro wind turbine generator renewable energy system on street light. Due to the street lamp already use the solar power system for replacing the natural power resources, but depending on some area are lack of sunlight, in order to solar street lamp are not suitable for build at the particular place. Designing a wind power system for street light is for backup the solar problem. It could be build in two renewable functions, which is the solar power system and wind power system, but my research topic is more concentrate on the wind power energy system. Literature Review: In literature review are require to explanation the overview of the research subject, separate the division of works under review into the categories. Make explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others. And at the end, conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in the argument, which are most convincing of the opinions and make the greatest contribution to understanding and development of the area of research. The process of assessing each piece, are consideration the four important sessions, which is provenance, objectivity, persuasiveness and value. Furthermore, also needed to identify the definition and the purpose due to the literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or also maybe a self contained review of writings on a subject. The requirement of research proposal is to references at least 10 of scholarly journals, scholarly articles, books or conference. From the relevant references, to identifying the fact data or others supporting evidence. And make the referencing citation for avoid to plagiarism. At first, the literature review is about the storage of fluctuating wind energy. An overview of the literature review is about the last 15 years the wind power energy becomes more and more important in Germany. The amount of total installed capacity of wind power generator was rapidly increasing in Germany, according the data collection from researchers, the average full load hours of the German wind generation is about 1600h/a and will increase 2010 to about 1960h/a based on the increasing off-shore wind parks in Germany(Dr Edwin,2007). From this data we get the knowledge about the wind power energy is getting more and more requirement in the global. The result is the increasing the amount requirement wind power energy, the reducing the environmental polluted. According the research paper, the Germany Energy Agency has been published the results, they target to reduce the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emission from today 860 Mio t/a until 2012 to 846 Mio t/a. This development of installment is not only happened in Germany others Europe country also development this generator is extremely fast. Worldwide country also has growing fast for installment the wind power generators. They are still continuing investigate the research on Compressed air energy storage (CASE). Compressed air energy storage is operated system in different ways, which is the storage of low energy for peak load demand, use of not used base load energy, reserve the energy power and storage of fluctuating wind energy. In conclusion, they still investigate the problem of transmission system for transportation the power to long distance, and the change reserve and operation system. Next, the literature review is plan for the wind power device to make the best of earth wind energy. After overview the paper, for collecting the best of wind energy resources on the earth surface, researcher are plan for a new type of wind power device, it called as multiple wind wheel wind power device (MWD). The multiple wind wheel wind power device is composes steel tower, trusses, generator, long axis, wind turbine and wheel boxes. Its installed all this components to be the MWD. Multiple wind wheel wind power device operation function is capture the wind energy in high air, a wind turbine and its generator are installed at the top of a very high tower, that the wind energy below the wind turbine cannot be utilized (zhang and zhang, 2010). In conclusion, in the limitation area this multiple wind wheel wind power device is more valuable due to the same of capacity and more power to generate. Another literature review source is about the generating capacity adequacy associated with wind energy. After overview, utilization of renewable energy, such as the wind power energy is for electric power generation is being given serious consideration around the world due to the global environmental concern associated with conventional energy sources (Roy Billinton and Guang bai, 2004). Researcher has presented a methodology for capacity adequacy associated with wind energy, comparing the two types of systems which are containing both conventional generation system and wind energy conversion system (WECS). From the simulation, the studies have shown that the wind energy conversion system is more reliability performance generation system. Due to the benefits of the capacity can be assigned to a wind energy conversion system is highly dependent on the wind. In conclusion the paper is making the studies on the wind energy conversion system; focus on the ability to quantify. And able to given reliability contribution in at a site with a high mean wind speed. Furthermore, literature review source is about the combining the wind power generation system with energy storage equipments. Overview the paper, this paper is about a group of Taiwan researcher to make some studies on the wind power energy. A wind power is a source of renewable power which comes from air current flowing across the earths surface (Lu. et al. 2008). According the research data, the average annual growth rate of more than 26% since 1990, the wind power energy is the fastest rapid growth energy source in the world. The wind power energy storage equipment also role as important, it approach to make wind power more reliable sources on capacity and energy. This storage devices also as application for reducing the output variation during the gust wind is also studied. In conclusion, the wind power and energy storage equipment is operation the system generation. The benefits of energy storage devices to mitigate the fluctuations during wind gust are also been discussed. The next literature review is reliability evaluation of generating systems containing wind power and energy storage. This is another group researcher to make studies on energy storage and wind power generating system. Wind power generation in electric power systems will increase considerably thought out the world in the near future, many countries have implemented or are in the process of implementing policies to promote renewable energy(Hu. et al., 2009). For wind power energy, is a faster growing source in many types of renewable source. To maintain the system more stability, the wind energy dispatch is usually restricted and energy storage is considered to smooth out the fluctuation and improve supply continuity. Researchers also investigate the wind energy conversion system (WECS) and energy storage, technique of Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) also for the reliability evaluation of generating system. In order to, researcher also make studies on the wind power to a small test system which is called as Roy Billiton test system (RBTS). The results also recorded from the wind penetration level, energy storage capacity and energy storage operating constraints. In conclusion, this research paper is making the comparison of three different operating strategies for benefits and advantages on energy storage. The following of Literature review is an introduction of wind conversion. In this Although the wind is not very reliable as a source of power from day to day, it is a reliable source of energy year by year , and the main role for future wind energy system will be operating in parallel with electricity grid system(Musgrove.P.J,1983). The paper has make studies on the wind turbine characteristics, the wind energy resource and economics. Due to the wind turbine system from begin is founded from middle east country, through some moment the wind turbine system is widespread to worldwide, at first , the Mediterranean was adapt the wind turbine system , after the period of time, its spread to Europe and worldwide country. And nowadays, the wind turbine system is very important of renewable energy for this century. In conclusion, wind turbine system is rapidly be installment at worldwide, the requirement of the design and operating function also needed to make improvement. The average wind s peed, and hence the wind power density is also subject to consideration geographic variation. The 7th of literature review is design of wind turbine energy system. This research paper is studies about the designing the actually shape for the suitable area. Air flowing is called the wind, because of sun, the wind always exists, the wind energy is from the sun, it is a renewable energy resource (Fang, 2010). In this paper, the researchers is investigate the air flowing in the whole earth is like a boiler. The air becomes light in the equator, and be heavy in the two poles. The air wind flows day and night. Researcher due to the data collection, the different of temperature, the different season, and different or areas the speed of wind is different. Therefore, when design a wind turbine energy system, must be consideration the mass air flows, materials of turbine all is important issues. In conclusion, the paper is case studies of design of wind turbine energy system for suitable to convert to energy source. The next literature review also as no 8 literature review is wind energy and power system inertia. This research paper is case studies about the wind energy along with the power system. Wind is an abundant, clean, robust, and compelling resource for generating electricity. The low inertia of a wind dominant power system could be troublesome in power system operation. (Abreu and shahidehpour, 2006). In this paper presented the problem operation system which is the inertia is to combine wind energy with high inertia energy storage system, improvement technology system in the flywheel energy storage (FES). Flywheel energy storage by using kinetics energy as storage, the FES technology might offers high steady inertia and good efficiency which improve the power quality. Due to no individual power plant is totally reliable and a wind farm alone may not be at the desirable reliability levels, a wind farm might no schedule to supply a certain amount of load. In conclusion, this research top ic has been discussing issues on environment, modular benefits and importance. If without the financial issue, they flywheel energy storage system is a good combination for wind turbine generator. The 9th literature review is the A novel wind energy system. This research paper is case studies also about the wind energy system. Power generation utilizing wind energy has received greater attention in countries all over the world due to rapid depletion of fossil energy resources (Chan and Lai, 2009). In this research paper, have done the case studies on few wind energy system, for example an axial-flux permanent-magnet synchronous generator (AFPMSG) is directly coupled to a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT). Axial-flux permanent-magnet synchronous generator is studied using a two dimensional finite element method and analytical methods. Vertical axis wind turbine for use in urban regions are close to domestic premises, hence quiet operation is an important system. In conclusion, the paper is discussing the wind energy system suitable for the urban environment. The axial-flux permanent-magnet synchronous generators have it benefits and advantages. Next of the literature review is the supervisory predictive control of standalone wind/solar energy generation systems. This research paper is making the case studies on the development of a supervisory model predictive control methods for the optimal management and operation of hybrid standalone wind-solar energy generation systems. drivers for solar or wind renewable energy systems are the environmental benefits due to reduction the carbon emissions, reduced investment risk, fuel diversification, and energy autonomy(Qi.et al,2011). According the renewable energy, the solar energy also is an important research for renewable energy. Some energy generate system is work the two renewable energy together as power energy. Solar system is absorb the sunlight to heat the solar panel, and then to generate the energy. Therefore, the design benefits for some country, because its able to generating the energy in two ways. In conclusion, this paper has studies the development if a supervisory p redictive control method for the optima management and operation of hybrid wind solar energy generation systems. The last of literature review is the grid voltage support by mean of a small wind turbine system. This research paper is making the case studies on the small wind turbine system (WTS) improved with voltage compensation functionality. At here, the important part is the voltage controlled inverter. As the wind capacity increases, grid utility operators have to ensure that consumer power quality is not compromised. To enable a large scale application of the wind energy without compromising the power system stability, the turbine should stay connected and contribute to the grid in case of a disturbance such as voltage dip(Orlando. et al,2008). The wind turbine system used a permanent magnet generator as the main system for operation. The permanent magnet generator is control to maximize the power output and achieve a smooth torque and power profile. In the conclusion, the paper has studies the new wind turbine system should contribute to the regulation of active and reactive power and th ereby contribute to the voltage control. Problem Statement and Proposed contents: Problem statement: According the literature review has been done in previous research data collection. Researcher base on the literature review research to identifying the problem statement. The problem statement is the wind power storage energy system. Need to find out the solution to ensure the electricity collect from turbine generator has been storage in the system. The next problem statement is total amount of wind energy collected by the wind turbine system. Therefore researcher must to find the solving method to complete the problem of wind energy collected. Transmission system of the wind turbine also needs to identify, for guarantee the process to transmit the electric power to generate the light with a stable. Problem background: Project background is from the research topic to build up the case. From the problem statement, applying the concept or methods founded from the literature review for solving the problem. All the information needs explanation clearly due to significance for allow reader understanding easily. Using the Monte Carlo simulation, in short (MCS) for collecting the data. A research projects on micro wind turbine generator street lamp renewable energy is consideration many sectors. Due to the problem statement been listed, if want to build the micro wind turbine generator street lamp on urban must consideration the wind energy collected system. In the urban, it consists of housing area, office building, highway road and Leisure Park. Different area are having the different rate of air flowing. Therefore, the wind energy collected system is requiring finding the solution method, ensuring the wind turbine system able to collect the energy. Based on the literature review, have been collect 3 methods to solve the problem. Firstly, is about the multiple wind wheel wind power device, in short (MWD). This method is designing the wind turbine system installed in vertically. The generator put in middle of the generator room. Steel tower must in circle type because it is the stationary axis the trusses turn around. When the air flowing, the multiple levels might be turn around and collect the wind. Other benefits for this is the require capacity is small. Therefore, this method is suitable to apply on the micro wind turbine street lamp. The next method for improving to collect the wind power energy is wind turbine generator, in short (WTG). This method is using the permanent magnet generator to generate the turbine rotating. When the air flowing is lower, the system will more generate to collect the wind energy. In order this method also can be apply on the micro wind turbine street lamp. The last method for improving to collect the wind power is the axial-flux permanent-magnet synchronous generators (AFPMSG). This method has an outer -rotor construction for convenient mounting to the turbine rotor structure. Its directly couple with vertical axis wind turbine. Based on this method solution, also can apply on the micro wind turbine street lamp. The next problem statement is the energy storage system. To build the micro turbine wind generator street lamp also requires to consideration the energy storage system. From the project design, the street lamp is a vertical aluminum tower. In base of tower must install the energy storage system for redundancy the system. Through the review on the literature review, has been collect 2 methods to improving the design. Firstly, is the wind energy conversion system, in short (WES). This system is make the collection wind energy into the system and generate out the more reliability of energy, when the system accepting the high amount of power it will keeping in the storage , and when needed the system will automated to release the energy to generate. The next method is the flywheel energy storage system, in short (FES). This also a method of storage the energy, it make through the high steady inertia system to generate, the kinetic energy will be storage. All energy storage system is to g enerate reliability energy to generate the system. The last problem statement is the transmission of the wind turbine power system. When the wind power was been collected at the generator, sometime needed to transfer the power to other location, therefore the transmission also important. Based on the literature review, the method been founded is the compressed air energy storage, in short (CASE). This also a type of storage system, but then it apply the transmission system for ensure the energy transferring in stable rate. In conclusion, the problem background solution has solved due the method from other researcher. Methodology: Research design and justification / limitations: In the methodology, must provide the scope of research, the scope of research is includes the depth of investigation, content, sample, size, geographical and theoretical coverage as well as the time scope. At this section needed to justification the applied research method. The research project is micro turbine wind energy generator street lamp. Application of street lamp is installment on the ground and providing the light intensive. The project is design almost similar with common street lamp, the only few part are different which is the top is consists of the wind turbine for generate the wind energy. And the bottom part consists of energy storage system for storage the energy. The tower of the project is using the aluminum as basic material, due to the market requirement able to change the material depend on needed. For the wind turbine also using aluminum as material because is avoid get rusty easily. The lamp of the project is using the light emitted diode (LED) the reason of choose LED as lamp because it save energy and good quality. Based on the calculation, the wind power street lamp is capable of producing around 150W of power when the wind were blowing and the street lamp save excess energy generated in a battery for using while without energy supply. Due to using the LED as lamp, that powers their high efficiency LED through the night. Since every location and project is different ,urban green energy is taking a components focused approach to the street lamp design the led light wind turbine , tower height and battery storage are all easily scaled to best fit a particular project. There are some advantages available of the project. Low cost for generate power; compare with normal energy resource wind power is the most low cost compare within. Other advantage is providing lightning of light during the midnight. The limitation is the street lamp needed to consideration the place to installment, the best location is near by the shore, because just near the sea. The air blow is higher. Project Aims and Objectives: Research objective: The objective of the research is the statements of the specific of main goal from the purpose of the research study. Due to the research objective, to make the identifying on the problem or question during the research. Firstly, determine the important of renewable energy in the worldwide, due to the reason of minimizing of natural resource. Secondly, to determine the wind power energy system is the process which through the wind flowing to make the rotary on the generator to generate the mechanical power or electricity. Amount collection of the electric power can convert to supply electricity power. Thirdly, analysis the ability of wind power to alternative the natural resources, wind is a natural environment source, it is inexhaustible source compare with the gases, fuel and metal materials all this natural resources. This phenomenon is facts; therefore its able to replacing the natural resources. Furthermore, the objective of the research is identifying the advantages of wind power generator, advantages of wind energy is a free renewable resource, a source of clean, non-polluting and electricity. Its also able to reducing the carbon emission. Next, of the objective is determine the amount of the energy in the wind be captured, according the case study, a wind turbine are horizontal axis variety, it installment at wind farm, when the air flowing, turbine might be turning and generate the electric current. And also identifying the wind turbine pose a safety hazard, die to the wind turbine do not use combustion to generate electricity in order to dont produce air emissions. Therefore the surface areas of the turbine are without any polluted, the health and safety attach as important. Objective of the research also include the analysis the potential on market requirement for the wind power generator, base on the minimizing of natural resource, definitely markets are requirement the wind power. Next objective is analysis the cost of wind power compare with conventional power plants, base on the wind power is free, the cost of generate energy might be low cost than others. Another objective is to identifying the amount of electricity power is generating by wind turbine generator. Last objective is to determine the stability of transmission of the storage energy source to generator, ensure the transmission process with balance. Research question: What is the important of renewable energy in the worldwide? What is wind power energy system? What is the ability of wind power to alternative the natural resources? What are the advantages of wind power generator? How much of the energy in the wind be captured? Do the wind turbines pose a safety hazard? What is the potential on market for this Wind Turbine Generator? What is the cost of wind power competitive with conventional power plants? A wind turbine generate able to generate how amount of electricity What is the stability of transmission the energy source to generator? Significance of this project: Base on the research from literature review and problem statement, and from the objective of research are research out the importance of the project. Significance of this project is able to minimizing the natural resource amount uses, avoiding the wasted of natural resource. Through the renewable resource also can cause environment be green reduce the polluted. According the earth hour organization, this organization will organize an occasion to encourage people switch light for 1 hour, if this research project has been produce , its may helping people apply the knowledge of important natural resource. This project also will cause the environmental more beautiful and clean. The urban will looks more elegant and fashion. The last reason is decreasing the carbon emission in earth atmosphere due to the global warming. Deliverables: Expected result: Based on the research, this research study has founded some relevant of research information from others researcher. Basically, according these few recent years, many of researchers are making study research on the renewable energy. Renewable energy is be valued by all researcher. Because the renewable energy resource having plenty of advantages and benefits. For example, is able minimizing the polluted of environmental, replacing the natural resources, due to global warming are getting more serious, renewable energy are able to minimizing the side affect on this. A micro wind turbine generator street lamp is a creative and invention design. According to the market, already available the solar panel street lamp, but the solar is only available for collect the energy from the sunlight. Mean during the midnight, the solar panel cant be collecting the energy. This is the disadvantage of the solar panel. On the other hand, a wind turbine street lamp having an advantages is the air flowing is available for anytime, no need to wait on day only able to function. Expectation of the result is this project is more organization want to supporting this project. Through the organization and media, spread the detail information to worldwide. And also governments are willing to plan to installment the wind turbine generator street lamp in their own city. Others expected result, have others researcher interesting this research project. And these researcher reinforcement more creativity idea and more advance idea for replacing. Timescales: Figure 1: Gantt chart From figure 1 is shown the Gantt chart for whole final year project timescales. The total period is for 9months. W1 = week 1 W2 = week 2 W3 = week 3 W4 = week 4 References: Abreau, L.V.L and Shahidehpour, M, 2006, wind energy and power system inertia in power engineering society general meeting, 16 October 2006, IEEE.org, pp 1-6 Biwen Zhang and Yingjin Zhang, 2010, plan for the wind power device to make the best of earth wind energy In future power and energy system engineering, 2010 international conference, china 26-27 June 2010,IEEE.org, pp7-10 Bilinton, R and Guang Bai, 2004, generating capacity adequacy associated with wind energy in energy conversion, Canada September 2004, IEEE.org, pp 641-646 Fang Lin Luo, 2010, Design of wind turbine energy system in IPEC,2010 conference proceedings, Singapore 27-29 October 2010, IEEE.org, pp110-116 Hu,P, karki,R and bilinton, R, 2009, reliability evaluation of generating systems containing wind power and energy storage in generation, transmission distribution, IET, Canada August 2009, IEEE.org, pp783-792 Lerch, E, 2007, storage of fluctuating wind energy in power electronics and applications, 2007 European conference, Europe 2-5 September 2007, IEEE.org,pp1-8 Ming-Shun Lu, Chung-Liang Chang, Wei-Jen Lee and Li Wang, 2008, combining the wind power generating system with energy storage equipment in industry applications society annual Meeting, 2008 IAS08 IEEE, Taiwan 5-9 October 2008 , IEEE.org, pp 1-6 Musgrove,P.J, 1983, wind energy conversion an introduction in

Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life

Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life ABSTRACT As petroleum, production continues to decline in many parts of the globe, more operators are seeing well abandonment as a reality. Drilled wells are plugged and abandoned for different reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the well has reached its economic limit or when drilled it was found to be a dry hole. (refer). According to Ide, T., et al 2006, well bore is taken to be high fluid transmittal pathway. Even with the current procedure of sealing and abandonment, individual wells have the tendency to loose their integrity due to various factors, which include but not limited to poor cementation, poor or ineffective plugging, and increase in formation pressure after abandonment, corrosion of casing (refer). Safe and economical well abandonment are important to the industry from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper abandonment can require re-abandonment procedures to mitigate environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, causing an increased financial burden on the operator. 1. Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND All wells drilled have a distinct life cycle with respect to its cost, duration, recovery, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes are specific to an individual drilled well, all producing wells pass through the same initial and final state, beginning with completion and ending with abandonment. After the drilling stage of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is made based on the reservoir attributes: is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well becomes dormant because of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it either may be shut-in (SI), temporary abandoned (TA) or permanently abandoned (pa). With ageing fields fast approaching their economic limit, abandonment is becoming increasingly frequent and many operators have to modify their abandonment procedure to fit the Wellbore condition and make certain that abandoned wells remain permanently sealed and prevent commingling while balancing the environmental objectives of abandonment and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, can become a major hazard to the underground source of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment [8] Shut in status (SI) When a well is shut-in it is still flowing but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. There is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long as it is regularly maintained according to regulatory requirement and procedures. Temporary abandonment status (TA) A well is said to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is isolated with a plug and the casing is plugged below the mud line. REASONS FOR ABANDONMENT There are various reasons why a well is abandoned, these are: END OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENT Drilled wells must at one point in time be abandoned. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle; it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon [1]. This leads to a rewarding and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and finally the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the use of drill bit and cased off at specific as drilling progresses. Another fulfilling target is reached when the first hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, successful enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well [1]. When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no longer economically viable, the next process is abandonment; a stage not so welcomed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole Abandonment A drilled well is also abandoned when after drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole. Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many years more than that of the short producing life of the well. The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and effective isolation of fluids all along the subsurface formation in the different layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing fluid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs [1]. To achieve this several significant intervals of the well must be filled and tightly closed with a sealant material from bottom hole to the surface with special attention paid to the production interval [4] and zones of high differential pressure and temperature. The material used for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the material used is normally cement based materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite can be used to isolate the different intervals[4][ PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The integrity of the abandoned well can fail for very many reaso ns such as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to set at the desired location as cement slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it [9]. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned [8]. Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells have continued to evolve. This drive for new technology for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the need to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while protecting the environment [4]. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is because abandonment is considered a sunk cost [4]. Project Objective The objectives of this thesis is to review the factors which contribute to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, casing integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that contribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and hence has to have independent well abandonment design. PROJECT METHODOLOGY In this work I intend to talk about For instance, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial action or ways to set the cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump. Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern due to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised casing and those having cracks in the cement [7]. This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( reorder and rewrite) Chapter 2 Literature review Well abandonment has come a long way since the first discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonment process; The need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled. The need to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well. Avert of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment. The need to abide by all regulatory requirements stated in during the abandonment. In the past years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed using a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be pumped down the drilled hole, has the ability to harden in a reasonable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically designed for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas vary d epending on the type of hole is to be isolated. Very few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation. Cement integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and related topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture. Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir model designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is instability in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing capacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plug s due to the instability caused by the difference between the density of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud thickened with bentonite before spotting the cement so as to allow a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of controlling the direction of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the end of the tubing to help divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can either be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water. Cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is expected to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set [W. Zhou et. al 2005]. Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement. A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of three cement plugs is required of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore[2]. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. Finally the third plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the well bore condition. Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005]. This is mainly due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005] a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of primary concern. Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model; their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data. In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandoned[D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment [4]. It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general [4]. Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer). Methods of ABANDONMENT The initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore. Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to meet individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing. In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment. PA PLANNING The most essential decision after when to abandon a well [11] is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment. For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible. Wellbore equipment testing. A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap rock. A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process. DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAM Prior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the existing well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperatu re and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock. Fluid Type Drilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used. Reservoir status In the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is then designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium. Cap rock Status It is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect. Placing the Plugs After the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level. Along with this general methodology, each region stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples. PA steps in Los Angeles Basin in as follows [12]: The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a qualified engineer. A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared. The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed. The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified. Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made. The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers. The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled. Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made. In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea involved three phases [13]: Perform standalone wireline intervention. Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set. Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps. Another abandonment performed in the North Sea followed a different procedure [14]: A permanent cement primary barrier placed immediately above the reservoir. A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier. A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands. Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead. In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the following: The source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined. If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned. The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed. Retrievable tools are used as required. Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized. The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted. As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal. Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow. Techniques for Abandonment The techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques include; Rig Coil tubing unit Rigless abandonment COIL TUBING UNIT The flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment [15,16]. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit [fig.] abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal. Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubing: Mobility; All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility. Self-sufficiency; the service company provides nearly all activities. Dry location; Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite. Single operation; the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite. Low mileage; Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves. In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and configuration of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered. In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantages: Increased tripping speeds Increased rig-move efficiency Precise placement of cement plugs; exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping. Suitable for use on live wells; it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly. No need to pull production tubing; existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval. Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman. REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USA In the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration given to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it [3], during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has risen along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries around the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement; though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of California in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as follows; Minerals Management Services (MMS): The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G. Department of Conservation, Division of Oil: Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC) The California Code of Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements. California State Lands Commission (CSLC): The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q). Abandonment in the North Sea In the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well accountable and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak. Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK sector of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch Mining Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life ABSTRACT As petroleum, production continues to decline in many parts of the globe, more operators are seeing well abandonment as a reality. Drilled wells are plugged and abandoned for different reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the well has reached its economic limit or when drilled it was found to be a dry hole. (refer). According to Ide, T., et al 2006, well bore is taken to be high fluid transmittal pathway. Even with the current procedure of sealing and abandonment, individual wells have the tendency to loose their integrity due to various factors, which include but not limited to poor cementation, poor or ineffective plugging, and increase in formation pressure after abandonment, corrosion of casing (refer). Safe and economical well abandonment are important to the industry from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper abandonment can require re-abandonment procedures to mitigate environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, causing an increased financial burden on the operator. 1. Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND All wells drilled have a distinct life cycle with respect to its cost, duration, recovery, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes are specific to an individual drilled well, all producing wells pass through the same initial and final state, beginning with completion and ending with abandonment. After the drilling stage of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is made based on the reservoir attributes: is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well becomes dormant because of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it either may be shut-in (SI), temporary abandoned (TA) or permanently abandoned (pa). With ageing fields fast approaching their economic limit, abandonment is becoming increasingly frequent and many operators have to modify their abandonment procedure to fit the Wellbore condition and make certain that abandoned wells remain permanently sealed and prevent commingling while balancing the environmental objectives of abandonment and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, can become a major hazard to the underground source of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment [8] Shut in status (SI) When a well is shut-in it is still flowing but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. There is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long as it is regularly maintained according to regulatory requirement and procedures. Temporary abandonment status (TA) A well is said to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is isolated with a plug and the casing is plugged below the mud line. REASONS FOR ABANDONMENT There are various reasons why a well is abandoned, these are: END OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENT Drilled wells must at one point in time be abandoned. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle; it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon [1]. This leads to a rewarding and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and finally the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the use of drill bit and cased off at specific as drilling progresses. Another fulfilling target is reached when the first hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, successful enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well [1]. When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no longer economically viable, the next process is abandonment; a stage not so welcomed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole Abandonment A drilled well is also abandoned when after drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole. Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many years more than that of the short producing life of the well. The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and effective isolation of fluids all along the subsurface formation in the different layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing fluid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs [1]. To achieve this several significant intervals of the well must be filled and tightly closed with a sealant material from bottom hole to the surface with special attention paid to the production interval [4] and zones of high differential pressure and temperature. The material used for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the material used is normally cement based materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite can be used to isolate the different intervals[4][ PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The integrity of the abandoned well can fail for very many reaso ns such as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to set at the desired location as cement slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it [9]. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned [8]. Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells have continued to evolve. This drive for new technology for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the need to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while protecting the environment [4]. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is because abandonment is considered a sunk cost [4]. Project Objective The objectives of this thesis is to review the factors which contribute to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, casing integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that contribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and hence has to have independent well abandonment design. PROJECT METHODOLOGY In this work I intend to talk about For instance, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial action or ways to set the cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump. Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern due to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised casing and those having cracks in the cement [7]. This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( reorder and rewrite) Chapter 2 Literature review Well abandonment has come a long way since the first discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonment process; The need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled. The need to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well. Avert of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment. The need to abide by all regulatory requirements stated in during the abandonment. In the past years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed using a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be pumped down the drilled hole, has the ability to harden in a reasonable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically designed for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas vary d epending on the type of hole is to be isolated. Very few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation. Cement integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and related topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture. Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir model designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is instability in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing capacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plug s due to the instability caused by the difference between the density of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud thickened with bentonite before spotting the cement so as to allow a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of controlling the direction of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the end of the tubing to help divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can either be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water. Cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is expected to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set [W. Zhou et. al 2005]. Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement. A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of three cement plugs is required of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore[2]. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. Finally the third plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the well bore condition. Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005]. This is mainly due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005] a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of primary concern. Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model; their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data. In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandoned[D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment [4]. It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general [4]. Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer). Methods of ABANDONMENT The initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore. Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to meet individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing. In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment. PA PLANNING The most essential decision after when to abandon a well [11] is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment. For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible. Wellbore equipment testing. A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap rock. A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process. DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAM Prior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the existing well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperatu re and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock. Fluid Type Drilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used. Reservoir status In the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is then designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium. Cap rock Status It is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect. Placing the Plugs After the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level. Along with this general methodology, each region stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples. PA steps in Los Angeles Basin in as follows [12]: The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a qualified engineer. A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared. The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed. The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified. Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made. The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers. The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled. Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made. In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea involved three phases [13]: Perform standalone wireline intervention. Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set. Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps. Another abandonment performed in the North Sea followed a different procedure [14]: A permanent cement primary barrier placed immediately above the reservoir. A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier. A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands. Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead. In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the following: The source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined. If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned. The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed. Retrievable tools are used as required. Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized. The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted. As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal. Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow. Techniques for Abandonment The techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques include; Rig Coil tubing unit Rigless abandonment COIL TUBING UNIT The flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment [15,16]. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit [fig.] abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal. Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubing: Mobility; All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility. Self-sufficiency; the service company provides nearly all activities. Dry location; Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite. Single operation; the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite. Low mileage; Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves. In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and configuration of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered. In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantages: Increased tripping speeds Increased rig-move efficiency Precise placement of cement plugs; exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping. Suitable for use on live wells; it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly. No need to pull production tubing; existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval. Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman. REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USA In the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration given to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it [3], during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has risen along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries around the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement; though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of California in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as follows; Minerals Management Services (MMS): The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G. Department of Conservation, Division of Oil: Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC) The California Code of Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements. California State Lands Commission (CSLC): The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q). Abandonment in the North Sea In the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well accountable and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak. Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK sector of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch Mining